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External Websites Also known as: ocean ecosystem, sea ecosystem Written by Michael John KingsfordProfessor and Head of the School of Marine Biology and Aquaculture, James Cook University, Queensland, Australia.
Michael John Kingsford Fact-checked by The Editors of Encyclopaedia BritannicaEncyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.
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The physical and chemical properties of seawater vary according to latitude, depth, nearness to land, and input of fresh water. Approximately 3.5 percent of seawater is composed of dissolved compounds, while the other 96.5 percent is pure water. The chemical composition of seawater reflects such processes as erosion of rock and sediments, volcanic activity, gas exchange with the atmosphere, the metabolic and breakdown products of organisms, and rain. (For a list of the principal constituents of seawater, see seawater: Dissolved inorganic substances.) In addition to carbon, the nutrients essential for living organisms include nitrogen and phosphorus, which are minor constituents of seawater and thus are often limiting factors in organic cycles of the ocean. Concentrations of phosphorus and nitrogen are generally low in the photic zone because they are rapidly taken up by marine organisms. The highest concentrations of these nutrients generally are found below 500 metres, a result of the decay of organisms. Other important elements include silicon (used in the skeletons of radiolarians and diatoms; see Figure 2 ) and calcium (essential in the skeletons of many organisms such as fish and corals).
The chemical composition of the atmosphere also affects that of the ocean. For example, carbon dioxide is absorbed by the ocean and oxygen is released to the atmosphere through the activities of marine plants. The dumping of pollutants into the sea also can affect the chemical makeup of the ocean, contrary to earlier assumptions that, for example, toxins could be safely disposed of there.
The physical and chemical properties of seawater have a great effect on organisms, varying especially with the size of the creature. As an example, seawater is viscous to very small animals (less than 1 millimetre [0.039 inch] long) such as ciliates but not to large marine creatures such as tuna.
Marine organisms have evolved a wide variety of unique physiological and morphological features that allow them to live in the sea. Notothenid fishes in Antarctica are able to inhabit waters as cold as −2° C (28° F) because of proteins in their blood that act as antifreeze. Many organisms are able to achieve neutral buoyancy by secreting gas into internal chambers, as cephalopods do, or into swim bladders, as some fish do; other organisms use lipids, which are less dense than water, to achieve this effect. Some animals, especially those in the aphotic zone, generate light to attract prey. Animals in the disphotic zone such as hatchetfish produce light by means of organs called photophores to break up the silhouette of their bodies and avoid visual detection by predators. Many marine animals can detect vibrations or sound in the water over great distances by means of specialized organs. Certain fishes have lateral line systems, which they use to detect prey, and whales have a sound-producing organ called a melon with which they communicate. Tolerance to differences in salinity varies greatly: stenohaline organisms have a low tolerance to salinity changes, whereas euryhaline organisms, which are found in areas where river and sea meet (estuaries), are very tolerant of large changes in salinity. Euryhaline organisms are also very tolerant of changes in temperature. Animals that migrate between fresh water and salt water, such as salmon or eels, are capable of controlling their osmotic environment by active pumping or the retention of salts (see biosphere: Salinity). Body architecture varies greatly in marine waters. The body shape of the cnidarian by-the-wind-sailor ( Velella velella)—an animal that lives on the surface of the water ( pleuston) and sails with the assistance of a modified flotation chamber—contrasts sharply with the sleek, elongated shape of the barracuda.
The movements of ocean waters are influenced by numerous factors, including the rotation of the Earth (which is responsible for the Coriolis effect), atmospheric circulation patterns that influence surface waters, and temperature and salinity gradients between the tropics and the polar regions (thermohaline circulation). For a detailed discussion of ocean circulation, see ocean current. The resultant patterns of circulation range from those that cover great areas, such as the North Subtropical Gyre, which follows a path thousands of kilometres long, to small-scale turbulences of less than one metre.
Marine organisms of all sizes are influenced by these patterns, which can determine the range of a species. For example, krill (Euphausia superba) are restricted to the Antarctic Circumpolar Current. Distribution patterns of both large and small pelagic organisms are affected as well. Mainstream currents such as the Gulf Stream and East Australian Current transport larvae great distances. As a result cold temperate coral reefs receive a tropical infusion when fish and invertebrate larvae from the tropics are relocated to high latitudes by these currents. The successful recruitment of eels to Europe depends on the strength of the Gulf Stream to transport them from spawning sites in the Caribbean. Areas where the ocean is affected by nearshore features, such as estuaries, or areas in which there is a vertical salinity gradient (halocline) often exhibit intense biological activity. In these environments, small organisms can become concentrated, providing a rich supply of food for other animals.
Marine biota can be classified broadly into those organisms living in either the pelagic environment (plankton and nekton) or the benthic environment (benthos). Some organisms, however, are benthic in one stage of life and pelagic in another. Producers that synthesize organic molecules exist in both environments. Single-celled or multicelled plankton with photosynthetic pigments are the producers of the photic zone in the pelagic environment. Typical benthic producers are microalgae (e.g., diatoms), macroalgae (e.g., the kelp Macrocystis pyrifera), or sea grass (e.g., Zostera).
